Analysis of the play “Florence” by Alice Childress Essay

This 1950 play by Alice Childress takes place in a train station waiting room in a very small town in the south. The play describes how Miss Whitney, an old black woman, discovers that her premonition of the success of her daughter, Florence, as a black actress is undesirably similar to that of a racist, white society. This troubling discovery has just as strong an impact on the reader as it does on Miss Whitney. This drama teaches the reader how the views and opinions of individuals or groups can influence other individuals or groups, although their views and opinions may be opposite, to approach situations with the same reaction. Marge, Miss Whitney’s other daughter, first introduces this frame of mind to as she accompanies Miss Whitney at the train station. They sit in the â€Å"colored† section of the train station while Miss Whitney awaits a train to Harlem to convince Florence to come back home to the south. Florence fled to Harlem with ambition of being an actress. After she calls home to ask for money, Marge is convinced that Florence will fail because she is a black woman attempting to make it in a business dominated by whites in a racially segregated society. Although Miss Whitney seems to have a little bit more faith in Florence, she still wants convince Florence to come back home. They even have a check ready to pay for her trip home, which is causing them to be late on their rent. This reveals to us that they are willing to sacrifice a little in order to prevent Florence from possibly failing in her quest for success. As Marge speaks to Her mother she reveals her mentality in regards to Florence’s situation, â€Å"She ain’t gonna get rich up there and we can’t afford to do for her. She got notions a Negro woman don’t need. She must think she’s white!† (Childress. 1320) Her mother expresses a bit more faith responding, â€Å"Maybe we shoulda just sent her the money this time. This one time.† (Childress. 1320) As Marge leaves the station we are introduced to Mr. Brown, an old black porter. As Mr. Brown speaks with Miss Whitney we find out that his son and brother are both attending different colleges. This makes it known to the reader that Miss Whitney feels it â€Å"takes an awful lot of goin’ to school to be anything.† (Childress.1322) Mr. Brown also informs Miss Whitney that his brother saw Florence in a movie. This excites Miss Whitney only for a second  as she proceeds to ask Mr. Brown about his brother’s aspirations, as if it were more interesting. The conversation is short due to the entrance of Mrs. Carter.

Andy Warhol’s Dracula Painting Essay

Understanding the artwork of Andy Warhol is something akin to figuring out a Zen riddle. That is, and people will look for something extraordinary when all they need to do is understand the simplicity of what they are viewing. Andy Warhol’s concept of pop art involved taking the very common images in presenting them in such a way that the commonality was elevated. But can you really elevate something that is common? Apparently so; Warhol did this quite effectively in his earlier works. However, in later years, Warhol’s work started to look a little tired. Perhaps the novelty of pop art was wearing off and Warhol’s creativity had stretched thin. There were, however, some interesting pieces of art produced by Warhol in the last decade of his life. This return to inspired creativity is evident in 1981’s painting Dracula  , one of his most underrated works. What was the inspiration for the Dracula  painting? Was it Bram Stoker’s novel? Was it the classic Bela Lougosi interpretation? Was it the popular play passion of  Dracula  that proved very successful at the time? To a degree, they may have all had their influences in prompting Warhol to use Dracula as subject matter. But, do not let be fooled: Warhol was probably very influenced by a film he produced entitled blood for  Dracula  . blood for Dracula  was an odd dark, tragic satire that saw the aging Count travel to the Catholic country of Italy to find virgin blood. Unless he can find such a victim, he will (finally) die of old age. Of course, his search for a virgin proves fruitless and his days are numbered. While the obvious satire of morality is evident, not so evident is the notion that Dracula represents the old world of the aristocracy. Dracula remains the last of the aristocrats having seen the world he previously knew disappearing to the expansion of Marxism. It is this same subtle theme that is also present in the Dracula  painting and that is what makes it so striking. With fangs bared, cape cowl turned upwards, and eyes wide open it would seem that this is a frightening picture of Dracula. Upon close examination, it really isn’t. Yes, in a previous generation the image of Dracula recreated by Warhol would be considered terrifying. However, by 1981, said to image really is – for lack of a better word – corny. Economic woes, foreign policy strife, and social upheaval had driven horror movies to become more violent and more graphic. The classic monsters simply became a casualty of the era. They were no longer frightening. And, as the painting infers, Dracula knows this. If you look closely into the eyes of Dracula (in the painting) you will notice decidedly out of place emotions. The eyes simply do not appear menacing or frightening. Actually, they appear more confused than anything else. They are wide open and â€Å"glassey† and seemingly have a dual expression of shock and boredom. Perhaps Dracula is shocked that he is no longer frightening. Or, perhaps, he is simply bored of his role as King of the Vampires. Either way, this would indicate a character that understands time has passed him by. This is clearly not the Count Dracula of bygone eras. This is a crucial point because it is this â€Å"past him prime† appearance that Warhol apparently wanted to capture. This is interesting since he opts not to elevate a character from pop culture; but, instead, decides to deconstruct one. In a way, there is a melancholy sadness found in Warhol’s Dracula  painting. This would seem to make sense, however, since the true role of pop art is to depict things as we really see them. In 1981, we were no longer looking at Dracula as a character as much as a tired caricature.

Experience essay Essay

It all started ten years ago, an event that would change my life forever.I had my first known seizure and it was perhaps the scariest moment in my life. It wasn’t the seizure that scared me, mostly because i was asleep when it happened, but it was the way my mother and father reacted. It was as if they had just seen a ghost. They were in disbelief. I could tell by the way they were looking at me that something terrible had just happened and nobody, including the paramedics was telling me what happened. All i know is that it had felt like I had ran a marathon in my sleep and could barely move, my whole right side of my body numb and discombobulated. Even though this was one of the worst days in my life I also consider it to be one of the best days too, because thats the day I realized I was destined for greatness. I say I’m destined for greatness because i believe one hundred percent that I am, plain and simple. As a kid I was constantly told I wouldn’t amount to anything and that I couldn’t overcome my disability. For instance, at a young age I went to go get some testing done by Alexian Brothers, their test told me that i wouldn’t succeed in pretty much every subject needed to achieve my goals in real life, yet here I am. Even though I had some hiccups my first two years because of medical issues, I persevered and graduated High school and have now set my goals on getting my associates degree because i’m a fighter. I have to fight, grind, and push my way through everyday just so I can understand some of the most simplest things, but its worth it because it makes me stronger and stronger. i can honestly say that im proud to be epileptic because it has allowed me to grow in ways that might not have been possible if I were a regular teenage kid. I’ve matured much quicker than I should have by having to take care of myself when my parents aren’t around. I’ve been taking myself to doctors appointments and having to get blood drawn for as long as i can remember, and as far as I’m concerned no teenager should go through this because not only is it physically straining but it is ten times worse mentally and I think it goes to show how well and extremely lucky i am. I’ve come a long ways from that little eight year old kid ten years ago. I went from a frightened, scared kid who had no idea what epilepsy was or what it did, to a extremely confident young man who works harder than anyone else just to prove he’s worthy, and I believe I am because ever since I realized i was destined for greatness I haven’t let anything get in my way and I don’t  intend to in the future.

CyberSecurity Profile on the CIA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

CyberSecurity Profile on the CIA - Essay Example G-1 – G-2, F-51; National Archives and Records Administration, 2000; Central Intelligence Agency, 2012). The available data suggests that the CIA strictly categorizes data and information systems in accordance with the laws, directives and guidelines attendant to the critical nature of the work of the CIA and the confidential nature of such data and systems. The data suggests formal documentation, as evident from the rigor of the categorization, though formal documentation is not available from the sources. The assumption is that categorization approval is embedded in the CIA policies and procedures, and emanates from the very top of the organization (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2010, pp. G-1 – G-2. F-226; Clift, 2007; Clift, 2007; Thibodeau, 2009). The CIA does appoint a senior information security officer to take charge of information security program coordination, development, implementation and maintenance across the whole organization, in the person of the Chief Information Officer or CIO. The CIO is empowered with the appropriate mandate, coming from the US President and the organization, as well as with the appropriate resources for the purpose (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2010, pp. G-1 – G-2 ,F-207, Office of the Director of National Intelligence, 2012). From the available literature, and from the example of its evolving cloud architecture, the functional architecture exists with the corresponding external interfaces, the appropriate security clearances and levels, information storage and transmission compliant with the laws, and level of priority for restoration of the information and related services (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2010, pp. G-1 – G-2, F-201; Clift, 2007; Central Intelligence Agency, 2012; Thibodeau, 2009). There are appropriate screening procedures prior to access

Machiavelli and Hobbes Theories on Power Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Machiavelli and Hobbes Theories on Power - Essay Example While both offer ways to subdue insurgency and limit dissent, their works are deeply moral in nature. In fact so much so, that it is not possible to understand how they understand power without initially understanding what ethical conditions underlie the need to use power. Furthermore, power itself is a manifestation of moral and ethical desires. In order to make sense of this ethical substructure located in the work of Machiavelli and Hobbes, and analysis will be undertaken to explicate the conditions that they hold make the need and use of power necessary and beneficial for society. For Machiavelli the greatest moral good is that of a stable and virtuous state, and any action should be directed toward that end, while for Hobbes the need for the utilization of power derives from the inherent desire to elevate man out of the state of nature. It is only through an investigation to these underlying assumptions can an understanding of their related theories of power be compared and prop erly deployed in modern society. Niccolo Machiavelli focuses on hereditary and newly acquired monarchies in The Prince, having devoted time to the nature of republics in another work (Machiavelli 34). One of the most important characteristics that a new prince can have, and by prince Machiavelli is referring to any leader of a nation or state much in the same way Hobbes uses sovereign, is that he acts virtuously. "When these [actions] are recognized as virtuous, he wins over more men and they are more bound to him than if he were of the ancient blood" (Machiavelli 118). It is essential that men be bound to their prince because this manifests itself in stability and loyalty to him. When such men are dissatisfied with their leader they are more likely to foment rebellion and such a rebellion is more likely to be successful as their cause will be seen as just. Machiavelli is very much concerned with how a prince is regarded among his subjects. He spends much of the work discussing the respective advantages and disadva ntages of being loved versus being hated or being feared versus being liked or being generous versus being parsimonious. The sort of individual who recognizes these advantages and is able to manage them well is a person of high valor and ability. Machiavelli cites a number of historical sources to reveal how these highly qualified individuals are best able to maintain a stable and peaceful state, despite the difficulties in establishing it. The difficulty arrives insofar that since men, "do not readily believe in new things until they have had a long experience of them," it requires a great of tact and resolve to install stability where there was once corruption and or chaos, thus men are chosen by the moment for which to act and be counted (Machiavelli 50). Machiavelli of course recognizes the need for the military and physical subjugation of people in order to keep them pliant. He explicitly acknowledges the fact that the characters in history he mentions such as Moses or Theseus would not have been successful had they been unarmed, but it nevertheless remains that their ability to persuade and compromise occasionally allows them to maintain their position. The state is inseparable from its prince and vice-versa. The maintenance of their position while serving their purposes also serves the purposes of the state.

Shame by Dick Gregory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Shame by Dick Gregory - Essay Example Richard feels inferior to Helene Tucker. He is afraid of even coming close to her and keeps a distance whenever he wants to greet her. He even has to clean his hand before greeting her. The narrator feels fabulous in white clothes. Richard Gregory is in love with Helene Tucker. He proves all this by the fact that he had to clean his school uniform daily, and water was scarce. He even goes to school just to see her. He denied his poor status just to be equal to Helene rich class. He obtained a ladies handkerchief just to avoid people seeing him wiping his face using his hands. The story itself is but a flash back in Richard Gregory life. To him Helene is a symbol of people who are better than him. The demonstration of this love is when the narrator does everything in his life for Helene. The narrator broke college record just for her. The narrator shows racism and discrimination just by the mentioning of color in his story. He mentioned that teachers saw him as a black idiot boy. He also mentioned that the only clothe that made him look bosom was the white folks shirt feet him better. Eventually the narrator shows that so long as one works hard in life he will succeed. He shows this by offering to pay the bill for the old wino in Mr. William’s

Critically analyse the role of public service broadcasting in Essay

Critically analyse the role of public service broadcasting in maintaining democracy in one nation-state with which you are familiar. (Best the UK) - Essay Example Most of the public radio and TV stations in the US for instance are licensed as non-commercial broadcasters, although they have some undertones of commercial advertising. This is contrary to the situation in other countries where public broadcasters can transmit commercials unabated (Blumler, 1992) The UK Broadcasting Research Unit in 1985 (quoted in Negrine, 2002) outlined the conditions that have to be fulfilled by public service broadcasting. Firstly, public service broadcasting should have a universal geographical presence accessible to all without any discrimination. Negrine (2002) argues that this is only attainable by setting up member stations across the country or having the broadcaster use sufficient transmitters capable of nationwide broadcasting. Similarly, public service broadcasting should cater for all interests and tastes as is the case of BBC, putting into considerations the plight of minority groups, Negrine further notes that public service broadcasting should demonstrate national identity and community meaning by airing local programmes from within the country other than importing shows from abroad. There is a strong tradition of public service broadcasting in United Kingdom. Study findings indicate that the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was established in 1922 as cited in (Harrison & Woods, 2001). In addition to BBC, Harrison & Woods further note that there are other four more registered channels in the UK namely Channel 4 which is a state-owned commercial public service broadcaster, a Welsh language broadcaster in Wales named S4C and two other commercial analogue broadcasters, ITV and Five which have significant public service obligations that are imposed as part of their licence to broadcast. All the four television broadcasters in UK provide five nationwide analogue terrestrial television channels. Moreover, it is cited that there are two TV channels operated by BBC namely BBC 1 and BBC 2. Further

Neoliberal Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Neoliberal Globalization - Essay Example As the research stresses there is a great difference in â€Å"being free to conduct a wisely-planned activity to gain both tangible and intangible outcomes† and â€Å"not to be under control†. Seemingly, those two aspects are mixed, and as the result the global situation is far from being perfect. The issue of freedom is closely intertwined with the topic of neo-liberalism. The present paper aims to review the issues of the neo-liberalism and worldwide integration and conclude if the positive outcomes will be possible in case neoliberal worldwide integration continues its movement without any changes applied to its current outlook. According to the paper findings despite the fact the key features of worldwide integration were widely implemented many decades ago, this definition appeared recently in 1970th. The story of international cooperation and trade turns back to even thousands years ago. However, that issue was mostly about trade. Nowadays, being global is rather the necessity. Of course, trade is a powerful instrument of enrichment, moreover, if it is about its international feature. However, even being a consequent element, trade is not the only one in the elements’ list of worldwide integration. In addition to trade, political achievements, religious features, economic successes, and scientific innovations are the important elements of global cooperation. Moreover, it is impossible in the current situation for this or that society to stay beside the global way of things, unless the situation is about a tribe somewhere deep in the jungle.

Business Decision Making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Business Decision Making - Essay Example The data is about the education level of the selected population. There are seven sub-categories in which the data is distributed. It explains the different levels of educational qualification for the population. Classification into seven categories is too detailed and is not relevant for the company's marketing strategies. The Company is engaged in the business of snack foods, an item that is favored by almost all sections of the society. Moreover some category contains data that are too small to be of significance. Hence the numbers of categories have been reduced to three. The methodology used was to aggregate all data that showed a value of less than 10%. Only Bachelor's Degree (44.9%) and Graduate Degree (33.99%) have been shown separately. All the rest of the categories have been shown under the heading "Others'. The table indicates that out of every 100 persons, about 44 people are having qualified with a Bachelors Degree and almost 40 persons have a Graduate Degree. The category others include persons holding other degrees, undergraduates, those who have attended college but do not possess any degrees (probably because they dropped out) and those who have attended school. It can be assumed that targeting those with degrees could be more rewarding since they are in a position to earn better salaries. Snack foods do not come under the category of necessities and hence people with more income tend to spend more on such items. So the last category can be given the least importance. Data has not been reduced, only aggregated. Since the data is given in percentages and adds up to 100, the value of 21.82% pertaining to "Others' was obtained through simple addition of values of the individual categories included there. Census Trend 1980 to 2000 Summary Report - Basic Variables: The table shows the increase in population starting form 1980 to 2000. 1980 1990 2000 Total Population: Male + Female 57,441 61,469 64,637 Male Only 29410 31964 33030 Female only 28031 29505 31607 It can be seen that the number of males and females are almost equal and hence both of them should be given importance when formulating marketing strategies. There is a small growth in population to the tune of 7% in 1990 and 5% in 2000. Average number of persons living in a house is low. This indicates that there is a large number of people living alone. Data has been reduced as well as aggregated. The point has been put across sufficiently with the data in the above table. Occupation and Employment Summary Report - Means of Transportation to Work: This indicates the different modes of transport used by people going for work. This is relevant since people could eat snack food during time spent in traveling. Those driving alone are not in a position to do this and they are not included here. So the table has been prepared according to the possibility of eating while traveling. Mode Percentage Time Taken (In Minutes) Possibility Subway 22.6 45 - 59 Yes - Has most time and high numbers Bus or Trolley 15.5 5 - 9 Yes - Less time Carpooled 7.0 10 - 14 Yes - More time, but less chance Walked 6.0 90 or more Yes - Low numbers, highest time Worked at home 4.3 Work at home Yes - High chance but low numbers Taxi 2.4 60 - 89 Yes - High Chance but low numbers Others who can eat 0.9 35 - 44 Yes- High chance but

Illustrate The Causes if Inflation And Deflation Essay Example for Free

Illustrate The Causes if Inflation And Deflation Essay With the aid of diagrams, illustrate the causes if inflation and deflation, and by comparing their economic effects consider how both can effect the corporate sector This essay will aim to cover the causes of inflation and deflation and see how their economic effects influence the corporate sector. By first defining any key terms, then looking at the causes of inflation and deflation, looking at their different effects on the economy and in turn analysing how those effects shape the corporate sector. Before this can be done the terms inflation, deflation and corporate sector must first be defined. Inflation is a rise in the average price of goods over time. (Begg, D., Fischer, S. and Dorndusch, R., 2000, p462) and The most usual measure is that of retail prices (Sloman, J. and Sutcliffe, M., 2001, P533) (this information being gathered from the retail price index [RPI]) and A rise in inflation means a faster increase in pricesfall in inflation means a lower rise in prices (Sloman, J. and Sutcliffe, M., 2001, p533). To illustrate the importance of inflation The COS (Central Statistical Office) says it gets more queries from the public about the RPI than any other statistic, a refection of the influence inflation has on every ones life. (Vaitilingam, R., 1994, p132). Now deflation must be defined. Deflation is the mirror image on inflation (McAleese, D., 2004, p285) and is defined by the Collins English dictionary as reduction in economic activity resulting in lower output and investment (Anon, 1998, p140). Corporate means relating to a business corporation (Oxford University Press, 2006) so the corporate sector is all profit making businesses. This report will now examine the main causes of inflation. There are two main types of inflation: demand pull and cost push. Demand pull inflation occurs when a rise in aggregate demand leads to an increase in overall prices (Begg, D. and Ward, D., 2004, p237). Sloman, J. and Sutcliffe, M., (2001, p537) represented this graphically stating The AD curve shirts to the right and continue to do so. Firms will respond to a rise in aggregate demand partly by raising prices and partly by increasing output (a move up the AS curve) and this is illustrated in the following diagram: This new, higher level of demand my happen for many reasons Atkinson, B. and Miller, R., (1998, p378) tell us that The high level of demand may originate from consumers, from firms, from overseas or from the government. The other main cause of inflation is cost push inflation. Cost push inflation occurs when a reduction in supply leads to an increase in overall prices (Begg, D. and Ward, D., 2004, p237) or when costs of production rise independently from the level of demand (Atkinson, B. and Miller, R., 1998, p378). This can be denoted graphically as: Sloman, J. and Sutcliffe, M., (2001, p357) describe this graph as Cost-push inflation is associated with continuing rises in cost and hence continually leftward (upward) shifts in the AS curve. If the firm face a rise in cost, they will respond partly in raising prices and passing the costs onto the consumer and partly by cutting back on production (there is a movement along the AD curve) Monetarists believe that inflation is caused solely by the supply of money in circulation. The monetarist view of inflation, encapsulated in Milton Friedmans dictum, inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenonInflation occurs when the growth of the money supply persistently exceeds the growth of real output (McAleese, D., 2004, p281). This can also be shown graphically as: McAleese, D., (2004, p281) goes on to say that A rise in money supply from M0 to M1 shifts the AD curve outwards from AD (M0) to AD (M1). The eventual equilibrium will move from E0 to E1 and prices will rise from P0 to P1In the short runthe AS curve may be positively slopedIn that event a rise in money stock will cause higher prices, but will also lead to more outputIn the longer term, pay levels will catch up on inflation and, over time The economy then approximates more and more closely to the vertical AS. This theory is backed by much evidence including this from the US Department of Commerce As deflation is the opposite inflation it can be caused by the same factors. McAleese, D. (2004, p285) stated it can be caused by supply or demand shocks. Supply shocks includesustained productivity improvements and technological innovation that lowers prices of inputs and outputsDemand shocks can arise for several reasons: a collapse in the stock market or property prices, a sustained strengthening of the exchange rate, warsthat undermined business confidence. From a monetary perspective deflation is caused by a reduction in the velocity of money and/or the amount of money supply per person. (Wikipedia contributors, 2006). Kai, V., L. (2004) showed this graphically as Know we how inflation and deflation is caused we must examine their effects on the economy as a whole and their effects on the corporate sector. Sloman, J. and Sutcliffe, M., (2001, p534) believe that If you could accurately predict inflation and adjust incomes and prices to meet it then it would not be problem. And Griffiths, A. and Wall, S., (2004, p463) reinforce this by stating if we have an economy in which inflation is proceeding at a steady and perfectly foreseen rate, and in which all possible adjustments for the existence of inflation have been madethe main cost of inflation would arise from the fact that interest is not normally paid on currency in circulation, so individuals would make more trips to the bank in order to collect interest on their money. These extra trips to the bank are often called shoe-leather costs of inflation. (Griffiths, A. and Wall, S., 2004, p463) The other cost of anticipated inflation is menu costs. Menu costs are costs from having to update catalogues, menus, vending machines, etc (Atkinson, B. and Miller, R., 1998, p384). These costs are very minute so would not greatly effect the corporate sector as a whole. Businesses such as restuants, catalouge based comapies and those who produce vending machines would incounter minor expenses. This forseen inflation econany can be represented graphically as: But normally high inflation is not accurately predicted so other economic costs arise. There are four main, other, expenses: redistribution, uncertainty, balance of payments and resources. This report will now look at these factors in turn. Firstly high inflation redistributes wealth to those with assets (e.g. property) and away from those with savings that pay rates of interest below the rate of inflation and hence whos value is eroded by inflation (Sloman, J. and Sutcliffe, M., 2001, p534). This may include people on fixed pensions. Atkinson, B. and Miller, R., (1998 p384) show redistribution also effects creditors , those who are owed money, will also suffer, since when they are paid back, the value of money will be worth less, while debtors, those who owe money, will benefit. So Firms can also borrow more for investment as real value of debt decreases (Atkinson, B. and Miller, R., 1998, p386). This will be a benefit to firms to wishing to borrow money but bad for those who offer long term credit options on their products. Secondly inflation tends to cause uncertainty and firms may be reluctant to plan ahead and take long term decisions regarding investment as they are unable to predict future costs and revenues. (Atkinson, B. and Miller, R., 1998, p384) This will reduce the rate of economic growth. (Sloman, J. and Sutcliffe, M., 2001, p534). So the corporate sector will suffer from poor planning and low investment. Furthermore inflation is likely to worsen the balance of paymentsits exports will become relatively less competitive in the world markets. At the same time imports will become relatively cheaper than home produces goods. Thus exports will fall and imports will rise. As a result the balance of payments will deteriorate and/or the exchange rate will fall. (Sloman, J. and Sutcliffe, M., 2001, p534). This will, therefore, affect companies who rely on the global economy. They will face difficulties to exporting products and selling them abroad. They will also face increased competition from imports so may even struggle to sell their products to the home market. Finally extra resources are likely to be used to cope with the effects of inflation. Accountants and other financial experts may have to be employed by companies to help cope with the uncertainties caused by inflation. This will then increase a firms costs. With higher costs, firms are less able to make profit. Some firms exit the market and, as a result, aggregate supply is lesswith national output falling and inflation increasing. (Begg, D. and Ward, D., 2004, p238) firms are forced to pass on increasing costs onto the consumer which may result in reduced sales. This could result in being fatal to a firm in a high inflationary economy. So the economy as a whole will suffer from high inflation, firms will find new obstacles in the way of maximising profits and the individual in the economy will each face new difficulties as a result. Sloman, J. and Sutcliffe, M., (2001, p536) report The costs of inflation are likely to be relatively mild if kept to the single figure problems arise if inflation turns into hyperinflation (where inflation accelerates out of control) and go onto say If inflation develops into hyperinflation Firms constantly raise prices in attempt to cover their rocketing costs. Workers demand huge pay increase in an attempt to stay ahead of the rocketing cost of living. Thus prices and wages chase each other in an ever rising inflationary spiral. Even though the effects of hyperinflation, and even inflation, can be devastating to an economy and the corporate sector, most economist fear deflation more. This section will now examine the effects of deflation on the economy and businesses. McAleese, D., (2004, p286) reported In assessing the economic effects of deflation the problem stems less from the shock itself than from the sequence of events that follow and magnify its initial impact. Price declines become self reinforcing. This means if deflation is affecting an economy, consumers will expect prices to fall as they have been. This will mean they will postpone buying a certain product now as they believe that in the future it will be cheaper or as they become more concerned about their future economic security, particularly if unemployment is rising. The prolonged economic slowdown in Japan has raised concerns about future income prospects among its aging labour force, which may well be one reason for its deflation of the last few years (Brooks, D. H. and Quisingp P., F., 2002). This all means demand will fall. Weakening consumer demand passes into investment. Investors begin to loose nerve. Sales forecasts are cut back. The appetite for risk weakens. Faced with declining sales, corporate debt that once looked rock solid now looks less secure firms cut back on the number of employees (McAleese, D., 2004, p286). So not only does the corporate sector suffer from declining sales, they are forced to reduce their prices even more. They have reduced investment opportunities as capital becomes extremely hard to raise. Deflation has opposing influences on creditors and debtors Consequently, the real value of debt and debt servicing rises. There is thus a potential benefit for creditorsBy itself; this redistribution of real net wealth is not necessarily negative for the economy as a whole. (Brooks, D. H. and Quisingp P., F., 2002). For firms with a high level of debt this means decreased security as the cost of their debt is increasing. This will also have negative implications on investment as another route of raising capital becomes increasingly more difficult to peruse. Firms that offer credit options will benefit as the real value of they owed increases. The effects of deflation are seen more server in todays economy as McAleese, D., (2004, p286) believes In an open world economy, there is an added fear that deflationary impulses in a large economy could be transmitted across countries through trade and investment linkages. Inflation and deflation both affect the corporate sector in various ways. Constantly low inflation should bring increased stability. Businesses seeking to invest millions of pounds over many years will be assured by increases price stability. Predictions regarding costs and revenues are much easier to make and firms face less uncertainty when assessing investment risk. (Begg, D. and Ward, D., 2004, p286) and low inflation is likely to increase the turnover and profit levels of a firm. Workers may also feel happier with pay increase therefore more productive under the illusion they are better off even though their real wage has not increased. So in conclusion low inflation can be beneficial to the corporate sector but higher inflation can have many negative affects but It is generally better to have mild inflation than deflation. Deflationcan create a potentially dangerous situation, as occurred during the depression of the 1930s. (Atkinson, B. and Miller, R., 1998, p386). Biblography Anon, 1998, Collins Gem English dictionary (Nineteenth Edition), HarperCollins Publishing, Glasgow Atkinson, B. and Miller, R., 1998, Business economics, Pearson Education Limited, Essex Begg, D., Fischer, S. and Dorndusch, R., 2000, Economics (Sixth Edition), McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Berkshire. Begg, D. and Ward, D., 2004, Economics for business, McGraw-Hill Education, Berkshire Brooks, D. H. and Quisingp P., F., 2002, Dangers of Deflation, [online], Available from: http://adb.org/Documents/EDRC/Policy_Briefs/PB012.pdf [access 8th March 2006] Griffiths, A. and Wall, S., 2004, Applied economics (Tenth Edition), Pearson Education, London Kai, V., W., 2004, The Causes and Effects of Deflation in Macao, [online], Available from: http://www.amcm.gov.mo/publication/quarterly/Jul2004/causes_en.pdf [access 8th March 2006] McAleese, D., 2004, Economics for business competition, macro-stability and globalisation, (3rd Edition), Prentice Hall Europe, London Oxford University Press, 2006, Corporate, [online], Available from: http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/corporate?view=uk [Accessed 8th March 2006] Parkin, Powell and Matthews, 2005, Economics (Sixth Edition), Pearson Education Limited, Essex Sloman, J. and Sutcliffe, M., 2001, Economics for business (Second Edition), Prentice Hall, London Vaitilingam, R., 1994, The financial times guide to using economics and economic indicators, Pitman Publishing, London Wikipedia contributors, 2006, Deflation (economics), [online]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deflation_(economics)oldid=42742256 [accessed 8th March, 2006] Wikipedia contributors, 2006, Inflation [online] Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation [Accessed 22nd February 2006]

The History Of Bitumen Engineering Essay

The History Of Bitumen Engineering Essay Bitumen is described as mankinds oldest engineering material. This fact is supported by some evidence. Back at the time, nearly 3000 years BC, the Sumerians in Mesopotamia used bitumen to fasten ivory or pearl into the eye sockets of their statues. They also sculptured votive offerings which the mixture of their sculpture is originally from bitumen and clay. From the finding, it is proven that some thousand years later, bitumen was being used by the early Babylonians as a building material because of its properties as a cement and water proofing agent. Later, bitumen became the standard material and being used in civil engineering and architectural projects to hold bricks and stones together which used to line drains, watercourses and grain storage. It was also being used to create damp courses and seal the flat roofs of the houses in the same way as it is used today. It is also important in paving (Ask.com, 21 Dec 2010). Other Evidence found that, about 600 BC King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon rebuilt the city wall, which he intends to restrain the water of the Euphrates with burnt bricks and bitumen because the old wall which is made of dried clay bricks had failed to keep the waters at the bay. The Babylonians had developed a technique using layer of bricks, bitumen and clay which they reinforced with reed for construction purposes. The system was so successful whereas they were able to build towers up to twelve storeys high. The evidence is proven when archeologists excavating the site of the ancient city and they found traces that bitumen had been used for the construction of the building. Instead of using bitumen for construction, the reason why bitumen was widely used in this area was its availability in various forms. It can be found in certain places where we can find it easily. It was also available as a solid material in the form of bituminous limestone, which was used as the basis for small carvings. Because of its availability, bitumen has taken parts in many great legends of Biblical and pre-Biblical times. It is said that, bitumen has being used in the building of the Tower of Babel and for the waterproofing of Noahs Ark and Moses wicker basket (Zayn Bilkadi, Dec 1984). The Romans used bitumen for medicinal purposes whereas they use bitumen for preventing and curing a number of ailments including boils, toothache and ringworm. Meanwhile, Roman ladies used bitumen for cosmetic purposes whereas they used bitumen as a means of beautifying their eyebrows. Bitumen also was being used for maritime usage whereas Christopher Columbus and Sir Walter Raleigh found that the lakes of asphalt in Trinidad are useful for re-caulking their ships for the return voyage. Apart from maritime usage, bitumen was used mainly for medicinal, cosmetic and crop protection purposes. On the other hand, the German metallurgist Georg Agricola was writing in the early part of the sixteenth century that Bitumen is produced from mineral waters containing oil, also from liquid bitumen and from rocks containing bitumen. Liquid bitumen sometimes floats in large quantities on the surface of wells, brooks and rivers and is collected with buckets or other pots. Small quantities are collected by means of feathers, linen towels and the like. The bitumen easily adheres to these objects and is collected in big copper or iron vessels and the lighter fractions evaporated by heating. The residual oil is used for different purposes and some people mix it with pitch, others with used axle oil to make it thicker. On the other hand, the entry for bitumen in Blounts Glossary published in 1656 defined it as a kind of clay or slime naturally clammy, like pitch, growing in some countries of Asia. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the usage of bitumen for the road construction is to solve the problem of the dust raised by the horse-drawn traffic in towns. The availability of supply of tar from local coal-gas works led to the use of tar for treating streets and pavements. They started to realize the important of streets and road which would lead to the unimagined standard of smoothness and durability for the elements needed for their creation in the future. Rock asphalt and the Trinidad Lake were the sources of bitumen first used to bind mixtures of aggregates in road building in the modern style. (Asphalt Origin,) Nowadays, a small scale of high quality bitumen can be exploited from petroleum which is a readily available source of low cost. The production of bitumen grew with the rise of the motorcar and the universal demand for paved highways. The proportion of bitumen which is resulted from petroleum refining whereas lead that today most bitumen sources is from the distillation of crude petroleum oil. (BP , 2010). 2.2 Bitumen Bitumen is a versatile material that is widely used in civil engineering. Bitumen is a mixture of organic liquid that are black, oily, highly viscous that is a naturally occurring organic product by product of decomposed organic materials. This basically consists of hydrocarbons ,carbon hydrogen the rest becomes oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and trace the various metals such as nickel, vanadium, lead, chromium, mercury and also arsenic, selenium and other toxic elements. Bitumen can provide good preservation of plants and animal fossils. Bitumen and asphalt is two different things. In American asphalt used to mean bitumen but outside American asphalt refers to the mixture of bitumen and aggregate laid as a road surface. H:TOPEKBitumen Definition_filesBitumenInBeaker2.gif Figure 2.1: Bitumen 2.3 Sources of bitumen Bitumen can be derived from different type of sources. It occurs naturally, but for most occasions, the world relies on petroleum for the supplies of bitumen. The bitumen consists of crude petroleum oil that normally varies between 25% and 40%, but content of crude oil can vary between 15% and 80% (BP 2010). There are three categorization for crude oil bitumen that is bitumen based, paraffin based or bitumen and paraffin based. Bitumen present in the form of colloidal dispersion or in a true solution based on the type of crude petroleum oil. In the refining process, the proportion of oil to bitumen particles changes because of petroleum oil is taken away by distillation. Relatively in few numbers, this particle become closer to one another and their size increase when it is dispersed. At the time the distillation process stopped, the petroleum becomes a colloidal dispersion of black solid known as asphaltenes. This asphaltenes are dispersed in an oily brown yellow liquid, known as the maltenes fraction. It also react as a stabilizing agent to keep the asphaltenes in suspension are another group of hydrocarbon known as resins. Normally bitumen is found in a few forms, from the hard, easily crumbled bitumen in rock asphalt to the softer, more viscous material found in tar sands and so-called asphalt lakes. It is normally consist of varying proportions of mineral and vegetable impurities that need to be extracted before in can be used as engineering material. Bitumen also can be found as asphaltite. It is natural bitumen without an impurity that varies in the amount the asphaltite can be dissolve in carbon disulphide. Natural petroleum like bitumen naturally occurs as the result from the special decompositions of marine debris. After thousands of years it has been move through porous rock such as limestone and sandstone often by volcanic action. In certain areas notable for their petroleum resources, like in the Middle East, semi fluid bitumen can be found oozing out of fissures near hot spring or seeping out of the ground. Rock asphalt, it is more costly to move around and to process. This is because its variable and relative low content of bitumen and tends to be found away from the places where bitumen needed. It is important to distinguish between bitumen and coal tar. Even though coal tar is black and viscous like bitumen, it is obtained from the carbonization of coal that why it is very different chemical properties. Many part of the world in engineering project, from the construction of transcontinental highways to the waterproofing of flat roof surfaces, depending on the specific nature of asphalt. Petroleum crude oil processed by the industry to provide all but a small part of this material is important.(BP, 2010) 2.4 Manufacturing process Manufacturing of bitumen consist of three processes which is refinery process, storage and distribution. 2.4.1 Refinery process In oil refinery process, the crude oil is divided into different groups based on their boiling range. The first stage of refinery process is atmospheric distillation. In this process the crude oil is heated about 3000 C to 3500 C and the more volatile components in the crude oil such as petrol and kerosene are distilled off. Residue from this process called atmosphere residue, which is need further distilled under vacuum. Because of the applied vacuum, the effective distillation point is 5000 C 5600 C. this vacuum distillation process produce more volatile products called as vacuum distillates and leaves vacuum residue which is a non volatile residue of high viscosity. Based on the crude oil origin, the vacuum residue can be used directly as bitumen and for some cases of crude oil it needs additional process to meet certain specification such as air blowing of the residue. To ensure consistent product, the air blowing needs careful selection and control of process temperature, air rate and residence time. In other hand bitumen are produced by blending vacuum residue with asphaltenes which is derived from the production of lubricating oils. The selection of crude is the most important element of bitumen manufacture because it is required expertise and experience to yield a satisfactory product. 2.4.2 Storage Large permanent tank made of mild steel plate use to stored bitumen at refineries with capacities of between 100 and 10000 tones. To make sure the bitumen remain fluid, steam or hot oil is pumped during heating oils in the heavily insulated tanks. 2.4.3 Distribution To make sure the bitumen not cool and unworkable the product must be kept between 150 °C-190 °C throughout the supply chain.  The temperature of bitumen can fall about 7oC to 10oC when it is loaded into a road tanker and it will continue to fall further while in transit. Most of the bitumen will be transferred from the refineries using the road tankers with capacities of 10 to 40 tones. The road tanker is insulated by single-compartment tanks, normally with some kind of heating such as heating tubes. Insulated rail cars are sometimes used to transport bitumen to intermediary depots with reheating facilities. 2.5 Properties of Bitumen Bitumen is a durable and strong adhesive use as a binder in many applications with other material without affecting their properties. Its durability is important to major engineering part such as road and water ways. Bitumen is insoluble in water and can be used as an effective water proofing sealant. Bitumen can be used to line watercourses because it resist and do not react with acid, alkalis, salt and does not contaminate water. Bitumen is soften and thermoplastic material. Bitumen becomes liquid when heated and hardens when it cools. Bitumen can used easily in the area where its need to used because it can readily be liquefied by one of three methods thats applying heat, dissolving it in petroleum solvents or dispersing it in water (emulsification). Total production of bitumen is larger use in road construction. This is because bitumen gives flexibility to the mixed mineral aggregates that been used in road construction. It is available with economic cost all around the world. 2.6 Types of Bitumen There are several types of the bitumen below based on BP bitumen 2010: 2.6.1 Paving grade bitumen This type of bitumen considered as a parent bitumen of the other form of bitumen produced below. It is refined and blended to fulfill the industrial and road engineering specification that considered different climate condition. 2.6.2 Cutback bitumen This type of bitumen has lower viscosity than other types of bitumen. This bitumen has been diluted in order to make it more flow able and suitable for application. Cutback bitumen mostly is used for cold weather bituminous, road construction and maintenance. In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used to lower the viscosity of the bitumen. Fluidity of bitumen depends on the proportion of solvent and degree of hardness of the bitumen base. Cutback bitumen classified based to the time it takes to become solid, as rapid curing (RC), medium curing (MC) or slow curing (SC). RC is recommended for surface dressing and patchwork. MC is recommended for premix with less quantity of fine aggregates. SC is used for premix with appreciable quantity of fine aggregates. The solvent used for preparation of cutback of bitumen are white spirit commonly used for RC grades, kerosene for MC grades and diesel for SC grades. In view of the environment, health and safety cutback bitumen cause a problem because the solvent used evaporates and currently the evaporation is regarded as a potentially undesirable characteristic. 2.6.3 Bitumen emulsions Frequently the bitumen that been applied to mineral aggregates substrates in road construction is in the form called bitumen emulsion. Bitumen emulsions are the dispersion of bitumen in an aqueous continuous condition and been stabilized by the addition of emulsifier. Bitumen emulsions are the ideal binder can be used in hill road construction which the process of heating the bitumen or aggregates are not easy in that area. Rapid setting emulsions usually used for surface dressing work, Medium setting emulsions use for premix jobs and patch repairs work and slow setting emulsions are ideal use during rainy season. Around 60% of bitumen content in the emulsion and the left over is water (Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao, 2007). During the road construction, these emulsions will breaks down resulting in released of water and the mix will starts to set. Grade of bitumen affect the time of setting. Bitumen emulsion is ideal for used in road construction because it have low viscosity and workable in ambient temperatures. But to apply this bitumen in road making process, it requires controlled breaking and setting. Bitumen should not break before it is laid on the surface of road but, once it placed, it should break quickly. This implies that the road can be in service without delay. 2.6.4 Modified bitumen Modified bitumen is bitumen treated with modifiers. Certain additives added as bitumen modifiers to improve the service performance by changing such properties as their durability and hardness. Natural rubber, polymer and thermoplastic are commonly used to modify bitumen. This is an exciting development of growing importance due to the ability of modem technology to satisfy the demands of the bitumen and international market. Modified bitumen will contribute towards a longer road life and lower cost maintenance. 2.6.5 Multi-grade Bitumen This type of bitumen is chemically modified bitumen. It has multi properties that are properties of hard paving bitumen at high service temperature with the properties of soft paving grades bitumen at low temperature. Multi-grade bitumen gives improvement in resistance to deformation 2.6.6 Industrial bitumen Industrial bitumen also known as oxidized bitumen. This bitumen is made by blowing air through hot paving grade bitumen called blowing process. The result from blowing process is a product that softens bitumen at higher temperature than provide by paving grade bitumen softens. It also has rubberlike properties and its viscosity is less affected by changes in temperature than is the case with paving grade bitumen. 2.7 Requirement of Bitumen The some requirement properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general, Bitumen should fulfill the following properties: (Prof. Tom V. Mathew, 2009) The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather the mix should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should not become too brittle causing cracks. The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate. This can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing. There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates used in the mix. 2.8 Modification of bitumen Many studies have been conducted in order to improve the performance of bitumen used in road pavement by modified bitumen with other material. Additional materials such as rubber, polymer and epoxy resin have been used as modifier in bitumen in the previous research. This study stresses on the usage of fly ash as an additive in bitumen. 2.9 Coal combustion products Fly ash is one of the coal combustion residues. Coal combustion residuals are formed during coal-burning processes in power plants. Coal combustion product consists of several materials: (R.  Majko, 1996). 2.9.1 Fly ash Fly ash is the fines ash of coal ash particles from combustion of coal. It is called fly ash because it is transported from combustion chamber by exhaust gases. Fly ash is a fine powder produce from the mineral contain in coal. It also consists of noncombustible mater in coal and a small amount of carbon thats remains because of incomplete combustion. Fly ash is usually light tan in color. It is commonly consists of silt sized and clay sized glassy spheres which is gives fly ash a consistency somewhat like talcum powder. The property of the fly ash varies based on coal composition used and plant operating system.http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/FlyAsh1.JPG Figure 2.2: fly ash 2.9.2 Bottom ash Bottom ash and fly ash is two different materials in physical, mineralogical and chemical. Bottom ash is a coarse, granular, and incombustible material which is collected from the bottom of furnaces of combustion of coal in generation of electricity. Different with fly ash, bottom ash coarser than fly ash with grain sizes spanning from fine sand to fine gravel. The type of the bottom ash depends on type of furnaces used to burn a coal. http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/BottomAsh1.JPG Figure 2.3: bottom ash 2.9.3 BOILER SLAG Boiler slag is normally a black granular material with numerous engineering uses. It is formed in cyclone boilers which form a molten ash thats cooled with water. Boiler slag is coarser than fly ash.http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/BoilerSlag1.JPG Figure 2.4:boiler slag 2.9.4 FGD GYPSUM Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum is also can be defined as scrubber gypsum. FGD gypsum is the product from an air pollution control system which is removes sulfur from the flue gas in calcium based scrubbing systems. It is composed of calcium sulfate and produced by employing forced oxidation in the scrubber. FGD gypsum is most usually used for agricultural activity and for wallboard production. http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/FGDMaterial1.JPG Figure 2.5: FGD gypsum 2.10 Production of fly ash Fly ash normally produced from burning of coal for power generation.   Normally coal is pulverized and blown with air into the combustion chamber. In this part the coal will be ignites, generating heat and producing a molten residue. Then the boiler tubes will extract heat from the boiler and then cool the gas in the chimney. This make the residue from the combustion of coal harden and produce ash known as coal combustion products. The coarse ash kwon as bottom ash and  it will fall at the bottom of coal furnaces. In the other hand, the light ash will the light ash will remain suspended in the flue gas and will be collected by electrostatic precipitators, baghouses, or mechanical collection devices such as cyclones. C:Documents and Settingsto_pekDesktopproduction of fly ash.gif Figure 2.6: production of fly ash (ACAA, 1997) 2.11 Utilization and benefit of fly ash Fly ash have been used many part of the engineering application around the world. The table below shows the utilization of fly ash in the engineering part. (Fly ash facts for highway engineers, 2003). Application Benefit used in Portland cement concrete (PCC) -improved workability -decrease water demand -reduced bleeding -improved durability used in stabilized base course -provide a strong and durable mixture -lower cost -suitable for using recycled base material -increased energy efficiency used in flowable fill -allows placement under freezing conditions -reach 100% density with no compactive effort -increase soil bearing capacity -increase the speed and ease of backfilling operations Used in soil improvement -eliminates need for expensive materials -expedites construction works by improving unstable subgrade By improve subgrade conditions, cost saving through reduction in required pavement thickness. Used in asphalt pavement -reduce potential of asphalt stripping due to hydrophobic properties of fly ash -reduce stripping because fly ash consist of lime -a lower cost than other filler Used in grouts for pavement subsealing -develop high ultimate strength -accomplished quickly with minimum effect to the traffic flow. -used to correct undermining without 2.12 Type of fly ash Fly ash is collected use electrostatic precipitators or bag houses and then transferred to large silos for shipment. Fly ash divided base on precise particle size requirement, thus assuring a uniform and quality of product. There are 2 different type of fly ash from combustion of coal in large power plant which is class C and class F. 2.12.1 Class C Class C fly ash is produced usually from lignite and sub-bituminous coals and normally contains significant amount of Calcium Hydroxide (CaO) or lime (Cockrell et. al., 1970). Fly ash class C will harden when exposure to the water. Class C normally contains more than 15% of lime and can reach until 30% of the composition (Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin, 2007). Higher of CaO in class C fly ash make it more special with self hardening characteristic. This is because calcium is a good adhesive agent. The existence of pozzolan properties in the fly ash class c make it different from fly ash class F. 2.12.2 Class F Class F fly ash is produced from bituminous coals and burning anthracite .Class F is normally contains greater combination of silica, alumina and iron about 70% of the composition but low in lime content usually under about 15% of the composition (Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin, 2007). This fly ash has Siliceous and aluminous material, which itself possesses little or no cementitious value but in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with Calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form cementitious compounds (Chu et. al., 1993). 2.13 Characteristic of fly ash 2.13.1 Size and shape Fly ash consist of powdery and fine particle that are in spherical shape, either in solid or hollow and mostly glassy in nature. The carbonaceous in fly ash consist of angular particles. The particle size distribution of bituminous coal fly ashes is usually similar to the silt which is less than a 0.075 mm or No. 200 sieve. Sub bituminous coal fly ashes are similar to the silt size and it is slightly coarser than bituminous coal fly ashes. A coarser particle can result in a less reactive ash and could contain higher carbon contents. Figure 2.7: Fly ash particles at 2,000x magnification 2.13.2 Color By depending on the amount of unburned carbon in the ash, the color of fly ash can be found and vary from tan to gray to black. If the fly ash contains low carbon, the color will be lighter. Lignite or sub bituminous fly ashes are typically light tan to buff in color, representing relatively low quantities of carbon in addition to the presence of some lime or calcium. However, bituminous fly ashes are usually some shade of gray, with the lighter shades of gray generally indicating a higher quality of ash.    Figure 2.8: typical fly ash colors 2.13.3 Specific gravity The specific gravity of fly ash is generally varies between 2.1to 3.0 whereas the specific surface area are varies in range from 170 to 1000 m2/kg that been measured by the Blaine air permeability method. 2.13.4 Loss of ignition Loss of ignition is a measured of remaining unburned carbon in a coal. It is a critical property of fly ash need to be measured, especially for concrete applications. High carbon levels, the type of carbon, the interaction of soluble ions in fly ash, and the variability of carbon content can cause air entrainment problem in fresh concrete and can affect the durability of the concrete. In some application of fly ash are not affected by the loss of ignition such as filler in asphalt and flowable fill can accept fly ash with high content of carbon. 2.13.4 Chemistry Chemical compositions of the coal mainly affect the chemical constituents of fly ash. Depending on the coal combustion technology used, the fly ash can be significantly different even though they are produced from the same source and similar chemical composition. Therefore the ash hydration properties with the leaching characteristic can vary a lot between generating facilities. The combustion and glassification process used at certain power plant will affect the quantity of crystalline material versus glassy phase material because these two substances were depends on these two process. When the maximum temperature of the combustion process is above approximately 12000 C and the cooling time is short, the ash produced is mostly glassy phase material (McCarthy et. al., 1987). Crystalline phase calcium compounds are formed where boiler design or operation allows an extra gradual cooling of the ash particles. The factors that affect the hydration and leaching properties of fly ash such as the relative proportion of the spherical glassy phase and crystalline materials, the size distribution of the ash, the chemical nature of glass phase, the type of crystalline material, the nature and the percentage of unburned carbon (Roy et.al, 1985). Generally, the most important factors that influenced the mineralogy of coal fly ash are (Baker, 1987): Chemical composition of the coal Coal combustion process including coal pulverization, combustion, flue gas clean up, and fly ash collection operations Additives used, including oil additives for flame stabilization and corrosion control additives. The minerals present in the coal dictates the elemental composition of the fly ash. The boiler design and operation dictated the mineralogy of the ash. 2.13.5 Chemical Requirements for Fly Ash Classification (Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin, 2007) Properties Fly Ash Class Class F Class C Silicon dioxide (SiO2) plus aluminum oxide (Al2O3) plus iron oxide (Fe2O3), min, % 70.0 50.0 Sulfur trioxide (SO3), max, % 5.0 5.0 Moisture Content, max, % 3.0 3.0 Loss on ignition, max, % 6.0 6.0

Effects of Different Antibiotics on E.coli Growth

Effects of Different Antibiotics on E.coli Growth The effects of antibiotics on the growth of Escherichia coli have been found in several studies and some recent studies have also focused on the tolerance and reduced growth levels in bacteria to examine the molecular changes that allow such as change. E. Coli and anti-microbial agents: In a study by Dixon et al (2004), the antibacterial effects of microcystin, which is, a cyanotoxin produced by Microcystis aeruginosa have been discussed. In the presence of microcystin, the inhibitory values for a range of hydrophobic inhibitors were significantly reduced. Dixon and his colleagues studied the direct effects of appropriate concentrations of microcystin on the integrity of bacterial inner and outer membranes and found that the presence of microcystin affects the permeability levels of entero-bacterial outer membranes. Tolerance to anti-microbial agents in seen in bacteria, which shows a slower growth rate or which no longer, multiplies. This is very common in the E. coli bacteria, which shows a decreased growth rate after being exposed to antibiotics. In clinical infections bacteria tend to multiply slowly and extended periods of anti-microbial chemotherapy are needed to eradicate these organisms and achieve complete cure. Hu and Coates (2005) used transposon mutagenesis to understand the molecular basis of antibiotic tolerance. The authors screened 5000 Escherichia coli mutants to see reductions of kanamycin tolerance in the late stationery phase and found that 4935 mutants were able to grow to the late stationery phase. The mutant KS639 was most sensitive to kanamycin. This variety of mutant showed an increased sensitivity to kanamycin and gentamicin, ciprofloxacin and rifampicin. From the data obtained it was seen that a mutant lacking intergenic regions showed reduced tolerance to kanamycin. T he studies show that interegenic regions in the E coli may be responsible for anti-microbial agents. In a study that tend to examine the effects of ciprofloxacin on E coli growth, Lueng et al studied the effects of the uptake and release of ciprofloxacin from a hydrophilic stent in an antibiotic solution and the effects of a ciprofloxacin loaded stent in inhibiting the growth of E.coli adherence were tested. The authors immersed segments of (hydrophilic stent) HS in 5 ml of ciprofloxacin solutions for 24 hours and ciprofloxacin remained in solution measure determined the uptake by the HS. CHS (ciprofloxacin-loaded stent) was placed in 5 ml of water for 24 hours and the released ciprofloxacin was measured. CHS was placed on culture plates with E coli and incubated and diameters of the inhibited zones were measured. CHS 0.5 cm in length was incubated in separate 5 ml E coli suspensions. This E coli was measured and compared with control HS. The results showed that zonal inhibition to growth of Escherichia coli was, proportional to the concentration of ciprofloxacin. Accordingly the au thors concluded that there was a free exchange (uptake and release) of ciprofloxacin along a concentration gradient between the antibiotic solution and HS. CHS reduced the number of adhered E coli, but the effect was short-livedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Strains of E. coli and Resistance to Antibiotics: Strains of Escherichia coli that are capable of contaminating raw milk can show heightened resistance to anti-microbial drugs. The susceptibility of E. coli that originates in milk and milk products, meat and several antibiotics such as cotrimoxazole, streptomycin, cephalothin, neomycin and chloramphenicol, erythromycin, ampicillin and amikacin. The minimal inhibition concentrations were detected using a standard micro-dilution method. Babak et al (2004) stated the necessity to identify bacterial strains that have acquired potentially transmissible resistance to anti-microbial drugs. The study by Babak and his colleagues differentiated two kinds of E coli strains, one that is susceptible to the adverse effects of antibiotics and another that is resistant to anti-microbial drugs. There is a global expansion of bacterial resistance to anti-microbial agents such as methicillin and vancomycin with the Staphylococcus aureus showing increased resistance to methicillin and decreased sensitivity to vancomycin. The plague bacillus possesses a plasmid that is transferable to E. coli and has multiple antibiotic resistances. Vancomycin resistant enterococci are constantly transmitted to resistant organisms. These resistant strains have been effectively studied by McCormick (1998) to delineate the antimicrobial-resistant bacterial pathogens. Escherichia coli was found in cattle faeces and novobiocin was used in the isolation method when samples of E coli were separated in different occasions. This study by Tutenel et al (2003) effectively links the isolation of E. coli O157 samples using the antibiotic novobiocin suggesting the adverse effects of antibiotics on bacterial growth or survival. In a recent study by Chartone-Souza et al (2005), a tetracycline-platinum complex was synthesized which was found to be as effective as tetracycline itself in inhibiting bacterial growth of E coli and in this particular study two Escherichia coli sensitive bacterial strains. This tetracycline complex is six times more potent that tetracycline against E Coli HB101/pBR322, a bacterial strain that has developed a resistance to tetracycline. According to Chartone-Souza and others their study is extremely important given the fact that emergent resistance strains of E coli have made it difficult to treat bacterial infections with tetracycline. Conclusion: From the studies discussed above, we see two distinct trends of the effects of antibiotics on the growth of E. coli. Antibiotics can develop increasingly resistant mutant strains of bacteria or can inhibit the growth of a particular strain. Whatever the results are, there have been numerous studies that have substantiated the fact that antibiotics have considerable adverse effects of the growth of E. coli and other bacterial strains.

Paper Making :: essays research papers

I once saw a futuristic movie about a little girl who finds a book, â€Å"a real book,† she gasps, â€Å"made out of paper.† In the future world of this movie, all books had been confiscated from homes and libraries and were converted into electronic files. The books could still be read, but not held. To me, this was more of a horror movie than science fiction! Part of my love of books comes from feeling the paper and hearing the rustle of the pages as they are turned. With the increasing use of the Internet and talks of a â€Å"paperless society,† perhaps paper will someday become a thing of the past. So for now, I will appreciate every piece of paper that I can get my hands on, and hope that it won’t simply become a page, er, file in history. According to history books, the earliest paper used in books produced in the United States was handmade and imported from Europe, mainly England. Although the first American paper mill was built around 1690 in Germantown, Pennsylvania, most of the paper used in the U.S. was still imported from Europe until the American Revolution. A year after the Stamp Act of 1765 was passed, wire papermaking molds were first made, and paper-making in this country finally got its â€Å"official† start. The handmade paper used in the 17th and 18th centuries can be distinguished from paper that was made later by holding the paper up to a light and looking for "chain-lines" which are left from the wires in the paper mold. With this method, fewer fibers accumulate directly on the wire, so the paper is slightly thinner and more transparent to light. This pattern is usually very apparent and appears as lines that run about an inch apart, with several horizontal short lines connecting the long wire lines. Some modern paper has artificially-applied chain lines, and is usually referred to as "laid" paper, which is the name given to handmade chain-line paper. The handmade chain-line paper was made of cotton and/or linen rags, which were soaked in liquid until the fibers broke down into bits.

Salmonella :: essays research papers fc

Description Salmonella is an intestinal infection caused by Salmonella enterica bacteria. You can become infected by eating foods contaminated with Salmonella or by touching infected pets. In rarer cases, Salmonella infection can also be carried in medical products that were derived from contaminated animals. Before a Salmonella infection can begin, somewhere between 100,000 and 100,000,000 Salmonella enterica bacteria must actually be swallowed. Salmonella bacteria invade the intestinal wall, where they trigger inflammation. They also produce irritating intestinal poisons. In some rare cases, Salmonella bacteria may enter the bloodstream and settle in tissues and organs far away from the intestines. This spread of Salmonella infection is most common in infants, in the elderly, and in patients whose immune defenses are weakened. Symptoms After someone has eaten food contaminated with Salmonella bacteria, it usually takes 8 to 48 hours for symptoms to begin. Symptoms of Salmonella include fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and muscle aches. Prevention You can prevent Salmonella by thoroughly cooking all meats, ground beef, poultry and eggs, and by promptly refrigerating all leftovers. Whenever silverware has touched raw meat, wash these items thoroughly with soap and water. Also, avoid eating eggs that are raw or partially cooked. Frequent hand washing is particularly important, especially after using the rest room. Treatment Doctors do not usually prescribe antibiotics, since patients typically recover on their own in a few days. Since many strains of Salmonella are resistant to one or more antibiotics, a patient may be treated initially with one antibiotic, then switched to a second antibiotic if it doesn’t work. Prognosis Most patients with Salmonella recover within 5 to 10 days; however, they may continue to pass Salmonella bacteria in their stool for up to 2 months. Salmonella :: essays research papers fc Description Salmonella is an intestinal infection caused by Salmonella enterica bacteria. You can become infected by eating foods contaminated with Salmonella or by touching infected pets. In rarer cases, Salmonella infection can also be carried in medical products that were derived from contaminated animals. Before a Salmonella infection can begin, somewhere between 100,000 and 100,000,000 Salmonella enterica bacteria must actually be swallowed. Salmonella bacteria invade the intestinal wall, where they trigger inflammation. They also produce irritating intestinal poisons. In some rare cases, Salmonella bacteria may enter the bloodstream and settle in tissues and organs far away from the intestines. This spread of Salmonella infection is most common in infants, in the elderly, and in patients whose immune defenses are weakened. Symptoms After someone has eaten food contaminated with Salmonella bacteria, it usually takes 8 to 48 hours for symptoms to begin. Symptoms of Salmonella include fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and muscle aches. Prevention You can prevent Salmonella by thoroughly cooking all meats, ground beef, poultry and eggs, and by promptly refrigerating all leftovers. Whenever silverware has touched raw meat, wash these items thoroughly with soap and water. Also, avoid eating eggs that are raw or partially cooked. Frequent hand washing is particularly important, especially after using the rest room. Treatment Doctors do not usually prescribe antibiotics, since patients typically recover on their own in a few days. Since many strains of Salmonella are resistant to one or more antibiotics, a patient may be treated initially with one antibiotic, then switched to a second antibiotic if it doesn’t work. Prognosis Most patients with Salmonella recover within 5 to 10 days; however, they may continue to pass Salmonella bacteria in their stool for up to 2 months.

Altruism & prosocial behaviour Essay

Altruism, a form of prosocial behaviour had been one of many enduring questions social psychologists have investigated. Psychologists have attempted to explain altruism in terms of a person’s willingness to help at a cost. It has been defined by Walster and Piliavin (1972) as ‘ helping behaviour that is voluntary, costly to the altruist and motivated by something other than the expectation of material and social reward. This essay will look at research surrounding or reasons for altruistic behaviour. Much debate surrounds this topic as it s often unclear whether behaviour is truly altruistic or egoistic (seeking personal reward). Cardwell 1966 suggested that the primary motivation for helping someone is seen as a desire to improve the welfare of another person rather than the anticipation of some reward. One explanation of altruistic behaviour was attempted by Weiner 1986 who analysed the cause in terms of attribution of responsibility. These attributions create emotional responses, which motivates action or inaction. Attribution to uncontrollable causes such as illness or disability tends to produce sympathy, which results in helping. Attribution to controllable causes such as drunkenness produces anger, which inhibits helping behaviour. This was demonstrated in Piliavin study of ‘subway Samaritan 1969’. Weiner theory is one of many that tried to explain altruism. Batson empathy altruism hypothesis explains altruistic behaviour in terms of empathy. Witnessing another person in distress creates empathic concern, which motivates helpers to try to relieve their persons distress. Again the reason for helping could be egoistic ‘I should help him to make me feel better’ or altruistic ‘I have got to help him so that he feels better’. In Batson et al’s study of the empathic condition 1981, he found that the female students in the high empathy condition were much more likely to help the confederate even when they are in a position to escape from this responsibility. As shown by Batson and his colleagues people help for reasons other than for their own self interest. But it is possible that people who help in such situations do so to avoid punishment such as social disapproval. It is also possible that people help simply to avoid feeling bad about themselves. However, this does not appear to explain why empathic concern motivating helping (Fultz et al 1986). Studies such Batson et al 1988 cast doubt on these claims. This view of altruistic behaviour is very important, not only does it contradict the assumption that all motivation is directed towards the egoistic goal of increasing our own welfare but contradicts the notion that human nature is self serving. Another model of altruism is a negative relief model (Cialdini et al 1987) which suggest that when we are experiencing negative states we are motivated to alleviate this condition by helping others. This is personally rewarding and eliminates the negative state. Therefore the motivation for helping is egoistic. This model states that the primary objective of helping behaviour is the enhancement of our mood. Cialdini 1987 carried out an experiment similar to Batson study on ’empathic condition’. This time, just before requesting for help was made, the researcher either offers a bonus or heaps of prayers. The bonus made no difference however, those who received praise were still motivated to help. This demonstrated that under some conditions experiencing a mood lifting event may lessen our motivation to relieve our own negative state by helping others. Cialidini research although showing some evidence of helping for egoistic reasons does also seem to support Batsons more optimistic view of human nature. Smith et al 1989 developed a model empathy joy hypothesis that assumes we enjoy other people’s relief at being helped and so we help others because we are rewarding by their happiness. In Smith’s et al’s study on feedback Smith used a phrase ‘helpers high’ claiming that people get satisfaction when they see that the people they have helped feel better. It has been predicted that if we get feedback it encourages helping behaviour. Batson 1991 argues that another factor that determines altruistic behaviour is the similarity to the person who needs help. We are more likely to feel emphatic concern when we a close attachment with the person in need. As the studies were lab experiments, there was the problem of experimental validity, did the participants believe the situation is real. The experiment was conducted in an artificial environment, which makes it difficult to generalise to real situation and therefore the result shave low ecological validity. Also there were the limitations of experimenter – participant relationship, demand characteristics and the outcome could have been due to the participants knowing that they were being observed. Even though the studies have their limitations they have made a radical contribution to psychological research. The results also vary across cultures and so will also depend on the era pf that culture. It can be seen therefore that research into altruism has emphasised the complexity of the motivations and factors involved when deciding to help someone or not. These studies have clarified causes why some people help and why some do not.

Learning Styles Essay

There are three different types of learning styles. By taking a learning styles quiz, I found out that I am an auditory learner. This means I do best learning by hearing and listening. Now knowing that I am an auditory learner I can discover new techniques that will help me be more attentive and I can expand myself as a learner. First, discovering new techniques as an auditory learner to be more attentive is easy. I was not surprised when I saw the list of usual things auditory learns do. I felt as if the learning style I was assigned to fit me perfectly. I am one who will hum or talk to themselves or others when bored, acquire knowledge by reading aloud, or sit where they can hear but needn’t pay attention to what is happening in front. These are all things I do daily without even thinking about it. For example, every morning in my first period history class I will be typing the notes my teacher writes on the board but also working on other homework or looking things up. I need not to see what my teacher is doing. If just keep my ears open and listen, I believe I comprehend just as well as someone who sits in the front row and has all their attention focused on the teacher. I know that I am automatically immune to already doing some of these techniques, but I also know there are more tips that I can incorporate in my daily life to further myself for my future. Next, expanding myself as an auditory learner can greatly help me in the near future. I can become a better reading by reading aloud as much as I can. Hearing myself say things aloud will help me remember a lot better than silent reading to myself. I can also become a better writer by repeating things after I have written them down on paper. If I read what I have written aloud, I will get a better view on if the right words are being used correctly in that specific sentence. Also I will get to hear if that sentence, paragraph, or even full essay sounds like I’m doing well and staying on track. I tend to veer off subject sometimes, so I know that verbal repetition will be helpful for any upcoming school courses or even scholarships that I will need to write essays for. Verbalization is the key and in my situation knowing my key factor is going to help me expand my study skills and comprehension in school. All in all, I have become aware of what different changes I can make for myself. Taking the learning styles quiz and realizing that I am an auditory learner helped me realize how I can better myself throughout my learning years. I can discover new techniques that will help me be more attentive and I can expand myself as a learner and for that I am grateful.

Latin American History

Ernesto â€Å"Che† Guevara’s work is entitled Reminiscences of the Cuban Revolutionary War. He elaborates on how Cuba was revolutionized and what happened during those days. It was published in Australia in 2006 and runs to 314 pages. Guevara is conscious of his place in history and writes for posterity, to preserve a history of the armed struggle against the tyranny of the dictator Batista. The revolutionary icon Ernesto Guevara states that the Cuban Revolution has had a very important role in bringing consciousness and liberty to the Latin America region.   Because of the Cuban revolution the country has become one of the most influential nations in the world. Cuba has achieved its goal of the gradual eradication of illiteracy and unemployment is solved. Social security is also guaranteed and for the young there is the assurance of education. Aside from all the hindrances and challenges that Cuba had experienced before, the country still manages to stand up and fight for their rights and liberties through social revolution.  Socialism is said to be improved and will be accredited for the duration of the Cuban Revolution. Even through the darkest days and the blockades that were done to Cuba, the people did not stop their revolution. Guerilla warfare played an important role in the Cuban Revolution according to Guevara’s writings. Guevara’s guerrillas were able to overcome superior firepower and succeed over superior forces by living off the land and utilizing hit and run tactics. They knew where they would attack next and the government forces did not. They were trusted by the people and therefore were better organized politically by listening to the people. Guerilla warfare was a rebellious movement which was formed to overcome economic, political and cultural adversities. It promotes changes which aim to eradicate corruption in the government, to stop tyranny, repression and remove the power of aristocratic elites. Guevera relates that in liberated territories the need for health care, industry and education is basic and paramount. Before the Cuban revolution there was exploitation and cultural repression which made clear the division and inequality of wealth within the nation. In this environment the rich became richer and the poor became poorer. From my own perspective it seems that people of Cuba became radical about what was happening in their society, and that made rebellion or insurgency a viable option. According to Guevara’s writings, violence should only be an option if there is an illegitimacy of the government and the people of that nation believe that there is really injustice and inequality in their society.   Local radical tribunals were formed to lead what they call people's justice, to try   to solve public arguments in Cuba. Cuba became the center of international liberalism because of this, but the truth is it was really different. Ernesto Guevara was an influence in building a new political and social government in Cuba. He constantly utilized the teachings of Marxist Leninism leadership in his revolution, but he never confirmed this no did he deny it. Che was very willing to negotiate with the communists in Sierra, and he was likewise intolerant of Fidel Castro’s aggression and distrust of them. But still, Guevara’s attitude toward Castro made him realize that revolution must be done in Cuba and he must apply Marxism. An analysis of Marxism shows that classes are the central players in the process of history, yet for Guevara these classes are lacking and are replaced by the revolutionaries. Guevara used Marxist themes in his writings, and he used the philosophy of Karl Marx in his own theories of economics. In this vein it is also necessary to say that Guevara embraced not only communism but a particular branch of it, called Stalinism. He applauded the Soviet invasion of Hungary that crushed the workers’ uprising there in 1956 and rejected   Khruschev’s denunciation of Stalin’s crimes. Politically he seemed to be a Guevarist. I would say that Guevara played the biggest role in the Cuban revolution in political consolidation and the formulation of economic strategies. Unlike what Castro had believed, being a pragmatist, Guevara used his power in the leadership towards the creation of a powerful and independent state. Guevara did not favor nor did he totally support Fidel Castro’s pragmatic leadership, and he immersed himself in his writing, deciding the best method to refute Castro.   He read a work entitled Eastern European Handbook On Planning during this period. Guevara found that the key to Cuba’s survival is industrialization and economic growth. In his speeches on the economy between 1959 and 1965, his persistent themes were the importance of planning and development. According to Che, there is a need for industrialization and diversification and a need for consequently winning workers over to the idea that they must delay their anticipation of immediate material enhancement in their lives. In addition, Guevara’s analysis of the economy was influenced by Soviet thinking. The state is given authority over the revolutionary army; the guiding tenet of economics is the market, and the perception is that of a beleaguered   state defending its survival in opposition to the looting marketers. But according to Guevara, he knew the dangers of isolation. He then pursued a version of internationalism that takes into consider the problems unique to Cuba when it comes to its dependency. Therefore, internationalism is just a part of the problems that Cuba experiences during the revolution. Knowing that Cuba exists in a global milieu and by the stability of internal forces, then what political, social and economical alterations can make it stable, Guevara asks. For Ernesto Guevara, the response is, of course the Cuban Revolution.  He does not consider the production and exportation of revolution elsewhere. According to him, the only thing that Cuba can export is their political and economical state. Guevara is a most compelling and convincing revolutionary leader. Aside from his health problems, he disregards the material, and his undying dedication evokes the near worshipful devotion of others. At this period, he becomes at ease with Fidel Castro.. Being recommended as the Director of the National Bank made him the center of economic policies. Then Guevara formed the National Institute of Agrarian Reform which he designed for economic transformation. It can be said that agrarian reform becomes the basis of change and the peasants become the first liberating army. Starting with a more competent agriculture, and the eradication of joblessness, Cuba is now ready to become an industrialized country. Guevara also predicts that in five years, his country will be adequate in the production of textiles. It will be able to develop mines for nickel, iron and manganese production. Further, Cuba will have its first car plant up and running. Because of Cuba's economic organization, its reliance on sugar exportation, its need for spare parts, machinery and industrial plants, and also due to the drain of professionals and technicians, it is possible that Che's projections are very idealistic. Politically speaking, Cuba will not work or function independently for long, and formation of socialism in a hostile capitalist hemisphere was unattainable and utopian thinking. Che made his predictions and published them in an article during March of 1962   as he introduced the socialist theory. Simplistically, the impossibility of finding spare parts, the lack of technologies and the shortness of immediate resources needed to raise productivity could only be realized by an intensified management of labor.  Guevara realizes the absurdity of animosity among the leadership and comes to understand what can be lost in the face of fraternal rivalry, and what is to be gained by a cold realistic approach Guevara’s writings are expository and sensitive as to how the revolution in Cuba came about. He also explicitly reveals the scenario of the various occurances during in those days.   Cuba is obviously a nation built on revolution that has made a major impact on the world. The Cuban Revolution might well be considered the greatest contribution to the world of liberalism and revolution. Many transformations and drastic changes have occurred in Cuba. Ernesto Guevara is certainly an icon of revolution. He sets a standard for true revolution through his life, his analyzations and his writings. His writings on the intricate workings of the Cuban revolution is a great contribution to Latin America history for it is stated in his writings what he believes and how he has transformed and liberated Cuba. I enjoyed reading the book. I find it to be full of facts and insights that Guevara conceptualizes. References Guevara, E. Reminiscences of the Cuban Revolutionary War (Authorized Edition)  Ã‚  Ã‚   Melbourne: Ocean Press, 2006.   

Highlights of the German Pension Fund

There is a legal separation between the employer and the pension institution with the German pension fund.   It offers lifelong retirement benefits. The coverage of biometric risks – and not merely its function as an investment instrument – was one of the social requirements emphasized by the European Parliament but not adopted in the final draft.The plan guarantees participants a right to their benefits guarantees, a compulsory redemption of contributions, thus the employer guarantees the payment of the retirement benefits in the event that the pension fund should be bankrupted.Members will benefit from timely and accurate disclosure of information.The activities are subject to the monitoring of the Germany Supervisory Authority.Recognition has been given to trying to create a level playing field amongst service providers. The pension fund is the only financing instrument for which the complete subcontracting of biometric risks, asset management and administration is possible.The tax features make it attractive. The German Government adopted the recommendation on tax relief to contributions as well as the deductibility of pension costs as a business expense.   The pension plan makes it easier for internationally mobile employees to transfer their pension rights.I selected German Volkswagen Company and analyzed its pension plan (attached) according to its annual balance sheet.  Ã‚   Volkswagen places pension benefits under the liabilities column on the balance sheet.   The pension benefits plans are under-funded according to the balance sheet.How Volkswagen Accounts for Pension Provisions Financial ReportingPENSION PROVISIONSThe actuarial valuation of pension provisions is based on the projected unit credit method in respect of defined benefit plans in accordance with IAS 19. The valuation is based not only on pension payments and vested entitlements known at the balance sheet date, but also reflectsfuture salary and pension trends. Actuar ial gains and losses are recognized directly in equity, net of deferred taxes.PROVISIONS FOR TAXESTax provisions contain obligations resulting from current taxes. Deferred taxes are presented in separate items of the balance sheet and income statementDEFERRED TAXESDeferred tax assets are generally recognized for taxable temporary differences between the tax base of assets and their carrying amounts in the consolidated balance sheet, as well as on tax loss carry forwards and tax credits provided it is probable that they can be used in future periods.Deferred tax liabilities are generally recognized for all taxable temporary differences between the tax base of liabilities and their carrying amounts in the consolidated balance sheet.Deferred tax liabilities and assets are recognized in the amount of the expected tax liability or tax benefit, as appropriate, in subsequent fiscal years, based on the expected enacted tax rate at the time of realization. The tax consequences of dividend pa yments are not taken into account until the resolution on appropriation of earnings available for distribution has been adopted.Deferred tax assets that are unlikely to be realized within a clearly predictable period arereduced by valuation allowances.   Deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities are offset where taxes are levied by the same taxation authority and relate to the same tax period.(Volkswagen 2007)In a defined-benefit plan, the employer guarantees that the employee will receive a definite amount of benefit upon retirement, regardless of the performance of the underlying investment pool. A defined benefit plan promises a specified monthly benefit at retirement. The plan may state this promised benefit as an exact dollar amount, such as $100 per month at retirement.Alternatively, more commonly, it may calculate a benefit through a plan formula that considers such factors as salary and service — for example, 1 percent of average salary for the last 5 years o f employment for every year of service with an employer.In the defined-contribution plan the employer makes predefined contributions for the employee, but the final amount of benefit received by the employee depends on the investment's performance. In these plans, the employee or the employer (or both) contribute to the employee's individual account under the plan, sometimes at a set rate, such as 5 percent of earnings annually.These contributions are invested on the employee's behalf. The employee will ultimately receive the balance in their account, which is based on contributions plus or minus investment gains or losses. Examples of defined contribution plans include 401(k) plans, 403(b) plans, employee stock ownership plans, and profit-sharing plans.Cost and liability determined in this way for a pay-related plan are clearly â€Å"insufficient† when compared, for example, to the IAS19 or SFAS87 methodology, but the available deductions are generally more favorable than th ose allowed for by the various external pension vehicles (support funds, â€Å"Pensionskassen†, direct insurances and also reinsurance contracts for book reserve plans.)â€Å"These approaches have suffered under less favorable tax rules (tax limits on funding or taxation as employee income) or insurance supervisory law with prohibitively high insurance premiums (based on an interest rate of 2.75 percent).†In the United States a retirement plan is usually, tax exempt or tax-deferred.   The employer will contribute along with the employee in most cases towards a fund set aside for the employee's future retirement benefits savings fund. The employer on the employee’s behalf invests the funds; the employee then receives benefits upon retirement.The employee often has the option for early retirement, but savings benefits for the retirement plan in this case will be at a reduced amount.   There has been a growing concern in recent years in the United States with c ompanies filing bankruptcy and people losing their retirement, thus not all plans are secure investments for retirement.Comparing to American and German pension plans I can say that German pension plans are much stronger, guaranteed and beneficial for retirees. The reasons are probably different state policies. Germany is more socialistic country comparing to America. In Germany social services and benefits are huge comparing to America, for example in Germany healthcare is free and every individual are entitled to receive free healthcare and other medical services.ReferencesVolkswagen   (2007).   On the Internet at:     www.edgarscan.pwcglobal.comVolkswagen   (2007).   On the Internet at:     www.gutenberg.orgVolkswagen (2007).   Annual Report.   On the Internet at:http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/gb2007/content/en/annual_report_2007.html  Volkswagen (2007) .   Annual Report.   On the Internet at:http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/gb2007/content/en/annual_re port_2007Volkswagen AG Frankfurt Stock Exchange (2007).  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the Internet at:http://www.reuters.com